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been said that much of the substance of this was based upon Lagrange's early work.45 Another important factor during this period was the development of Assyri-ology, which not only contributed vastly to knowledge of the world of the Old Testament in the form of the history and religion of Babylon, Assyria and Persia, but also demonstrated that the biblical accounts of the creation and the flood had older, Babylonian parallels. The claim, by the German Assyriologist Friedrich Delitzsch in 1901,...
Romantic Platonic monism
This visionary element which marks the early period of Romanticism is linked to a revival of speculative Platonism in the early nineteenth century, marked by grand interpretations of nature. T bingen - the university that produced Hegel, Schelling and H lderlin - had a long humanistic Platonic tradition cross-fertilised by indigenous south-west German mystical-pietist elements. One of the earliest known works by Schelling was a commentary on Plato's Timaeus. The revival of Platonism was not...
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Cautious growth 1871-1910 The removal of the prince regent and the accession of King Kojong to the throne in 1871 brought about the end of this final persecution. Amongst the Catholic community a ghetto mentality developed which in this period focused on the growth of the church itself, with little concern for social issues and little awareness of the historical events taking place around them. In 1876, five years after the end of the Great Persecution, two priests who had fled to China were...
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The Tragic Week did not lead to the political revolution its supporters expected. But in Portugal the triumphant republican revolution of 1910 saw the clergy's worst fears realised through what Pope Pius X saw as 'an incredible series of excesses and crimes which have been enacted in Portugal for the oppression of the church'.38 The Portuguese church survived better than this dark assessment suggests. But the new republic abolished the church's financial, educational and legal privileges, and...
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revival of interest in Britain's Tudor heritage but also encouraged contemporaries such as Stanford, Charles Wood and Holst to write contemporary Latin works in an archaic style. While many in the Catholic Church welcomed the Cecilians' historicising reforms, there was significant opposition from many quarters to the conservative restraints implied by the movement's search for a 'pure' ecclesiastical style. Moreover, there seemed little scope for aspiring composers to step beyond the limited...
The speculative rupture of the later Schelling and Kierkegaard God
The revolt against Hegel in the nineteenth century was deeply indebted to the later Schelling's critique of Hegel. Though Hegel is not usually thought of as a 'Romantic', especially not in Germany, he may be considered as the root of certain anti-Idealistic tendencies or movements in the later part ofthe period. Schelling has been called the 'Prince of Romantics' and there is a sense in which this apparently protean philosopher focused upon two themes and obsessions throughout his life which...
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realised in the first instance through the support of the congregations, with their low-cost labour and high levels ofcommitment. The spread ofsome congregations seems literally like wildfire as groups of two or three sisters were sent by the mother house to set themselves up in small convents and teach in local elementary schools. The Sister Servants of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, an American congregation founded in Michigan in 1845, for example, had sisters teaching in more than a hundred...
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origin, there is a parallel between Kant's and Newman's derivation of faith from the sense of obligation to a divine lawgiver and judge in conscience see the University sermons, 1843 . Newman's idea of doctrinal development see his Essay on the development of Christian doctrine, 1845 , by which Christian doctrine has grown through the organic Spirit-guided unfolding of its original idea down the centuries, has affinities with the thought of the Catholic theologians of the T bingen school, J. S....
Fdp Religious Order
was her 'call' to preach. With the knowledge that the Holy Spirit had called them to this work, women were prepared to brave both external opposition and hostility and their own internal feelings of inadequacy. Nineteenth-century women, though, did interpret this call in different ways. For some, their ministry was exercised in spite of their gender, or because they were weak and not naturally suited to a public role. For others, like Catherine Booth, women had the right to preach regardless of...
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that religious faith is a voluntary and personal matter. For this reason religious affiliation could not be linked to citizenship. Freedom of religion was gradually extended during the second part of the nineteenth century, and during the first two decades of the following century the legislation that made baptism, confirmation and participation in communion compulsory was abolished. A similar development took place in Denmark after the constitution of 1849, though the politics of religious...
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hierarchy of their church.16 Even though Phoebe Palmer wrote a powerful justification of female preaching, The Promise of the Father 1860 , she based her own ministry on a strongly domestic ideology and did not encourage other women to follow her example.17 Indeed, once the new holiness sects took on denominational characteristics, roles that women had been encouraged to fill were increasingly closed to them. Women continued to operate on the institutional fringes, despite the appearance of...
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Europe. It created an active and productive ethos, combined with self-discipline and self-constraint, which often led to an improvement in living conditions. Some revivalists became rather wealthy, and revivalism was important in the formation of a middle class. Thus the revivalists were early modernisers and represented an ethos that has been regarded as a prerequisite for a liberal democracy. This religious revivalism has often been interpreted as a popular reaction to the Enlightenment and...
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to the missionary effort in Africa which, with the Maynooth Mission to China, was to become much more substantial after 1914. The half-century to 1960 was to be the golden age of Irish missions. The religious energies of the Irish church at home and abroad came essentially from the neo-Ultramontane movement to exalt papal authority over the Catholic Church, with a strong devotional life and with a high doctrine of church, priest and sacrament, though a minority of Irish bishops, MacHale and...
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the Tsarist Russian empire in which they were persecuted and violently suppressed and the Ottoman empire in which they were initially tolerated, eventually protected and allowed to flourish, and finally massacred. In the partitions of 1772,1793 and 1795, rapacious neighbours swallowed Poland piece by piece. Austria incorporated the Ruthenians2 of Galicia, with its capital Lvov Lviv, Lwow, Lemburg , metropolitan see 1808 of the Greek Catholic Church to which most of the population belonged. In...
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Brothers of Charity and Franciscans, the Jesuits in particular recorded an upturn, and in i900 the Hungarian Jesuit province was established. Women's religious orders grew rapidly whereas in 1877 there had been eighty-two religious communities in Hungary, with a total of 993 nuns, by i9i7 the number of convents had risen to 463, and there were 7,060 nuns. Although church activity was restricted during the period of neo-absolutism 1849-67 , academic theology was nevertheless able to develop....
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l' tat throughout the 1840s appeared to place the church on the side of the opponents of the regime who, much to their own surprise, found themselves in power after the revolution of 1848 which ushered in the Second Republic. For a brief moment, the revolution of February 1848 appeared to hold out the tantalising prospect of reconciliation between the church and a Republic that was not unsympathetic to religious sensibilities. Many on the republican left preached a social gospel in which the...
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order in Baltimore, the Sisters of Charity, whose members gave themselves to education as well as the care of orphans. Growing religious diversity undercut aspirations for a 'Christian America' defined in evangelical terms. But stresses within the dominant Protestant movements were just as corrosive. The social promise of evangelical revival early in the century was that, by converting individuals, society could be transformed. By the 1830s, the persistence of many social problems, especially...
Ii2
expiation for the ungodly insurrection of the Communards begun at Montmartre in 1871. In devoutly Catholic Belgium, with its complex medieval heritage and its tendency to religious conservatism, Pugin's polemics found a ready audience a French translation of True principles was published in Bruges in 1850 . When Jean-Baptiste Malou 1806-86 was consecrated bishop of Bruges in 1849 he wore vestments designed by Pugin himself and the bishop later commissioned Pugin's son, Edward, to build him a...
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In 1794 19-year-old Marie-Claudine Thevenet accompanied her two brothers as they, and a procession of other young men, made their way to the scrubland of 'Les Brotteaux' in Lyons to be executed by the Revolutionary Tribunal of the French Republic. Her brothers were punished for their part in the city's rebellion against the Republic the previous year, for they and their siblings had been brought up in the committed Catholic household of a wealthy Lyonnais silk merchant that openly opposed the...
Douglas Hedley
British security, power and imperial expansion between Waterloo and 1914 meant that many English writers saw the period as a golden age. However, even Englishmen were deeply worried throughout this period about radical upheavals. Europe was convulsed and lacerated by revolutions and wars throughout the nineteenth century the unsatisfactory rule of the reactionary Metternich the revolutions of 1848, followed by the unification of Germany and Italy the Prussian-Austrian and Franco-Prussian wars,...
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his Platonising insistence upon the identity of Being and Intellect. Feuerbach, by contrast, insisted upon the difference between Intellect and real, i.e. material, Being. The latter cannot be the object of speculative thought - Being is the opposite of Intellect, and its particularity and individuality cannot be grasped by the Intellect. Hegel represented, for Feuerbach, the neo-Platonic tradition in its supplanting of the real world with the intelligible. Feuerbach saw the new philosophy as a...
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met several times during Colenso's visits to Britain and Europe, and Colenso translated and published volume i of Kuenen's Historisch-kritisch onderzoek in 1865.24 Colenso convinced Kuenen that what was called the Book of Origins roughly what has come to be known as the Priestly source or document, and containing narratives and the Mosaic legislation in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers was post-exilic, a view that Colenso later partly embraced himself as far as the sacrificial and priestly...
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people , which co-operated closely with the Independents but retained its separate organisation. Presbyterians with 0.3 per cent who had not trodden the Unitarian road had churches in many cities and were strong in Northumberland, close to the border with Scotland, from where came many of their members. The international Moravian Church had places of worship, some of them in residential communities such as Fulneck near Leeds, that catered for significant numbers, though far less than 0.1 per...
Mary Heimann
Over the course of the nineteenth century, there was a widespread change in the way in which religious commitment was expressed and apparently understood by a majority of observant Roman Catholics. For most of the eighteenth century, all that had seemed necessary to lead what was generally considered to be a devout life was to be baptised to hear Mass on a Sunday and to take seriously one's duties of going to confession and receiving the Blessed Sacrament at least once a year 'at Easter or...
The Enlightenment legacy Socinianism and Spiritualism
The Romantics caricatured their religious predecessors as prosaic Philistines, men more content with their sinecures and cosy demonstrations of divine benevolence than with the life ofthe spirit or true religious experience. In fact bishops Butler and Berkeley, and the non-juror William Law, were Christian apologists of genius who could have adorned any age. Genuinely religious philosophers like Shaftesbury, Burke and Richard Price were just as typical of the Age of Reason as Bentham and Paine....
Contributors
Gabriel AdriAnyi is Emeritus Professor of Church History including East European Church History in the Catholic Theological Faculty, University of Bonn, and is Professor of Church History at the Lorand-E tv s-University at Budapest. He has written and edited a number of books on modern church history, including Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Ungarn Cologne Bohlau, 2004 , Die Ostpolitik des Vatikans 1958-1978 gegen ber Ungarn der Fall Kardinal Mindszenty Herne Schafer, 2003 , Kleine...
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independent Christian witness French Protestants had persevered in adversity since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dutch Dissenters had enjoyed religious toleration for longer than their English counterparts and in Italy the Waldensians could claim a lineage extending back before the Reformation. But much of the religion that flowed in separate channels was novel, the result of the Evangelical Revival. Its expression in western Europe, usually called the R veil, was delayed until...